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Introduction Anxiety is a central topic in psychology and psychiatry, manifesting both as a transient state and a stable trait. Differentiating between temporary situational anxiety and an individual’s predisposition to
Introduction In psychological and educational research, not all variables are continuous. Many important variables — such as gender, pass/fail outcomes, yes/no responses, or item correctness — are dichotomous (i.e., having
Introduction In psychological and educational measurement, one of the major challenges is interpreting individual performance in a way that is meaningful, accurate, and comparable across different tests, populations, and contexts.
Introduction Psychological scaling is a method used to quantify the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. It bridges the gap between objective physical measurements and
Introduction Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify latent structures within a set of observed variables. Its primary purpose is to uncover unobservable, underlying factors (latent variables) that