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Introduction Learning disability (LDs), often referred to as specific learning disorders (SLDs), are neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by persistent difficulties in reading, writing, or mathematical reasoning skills, despite normal intelligence and
Introduction Assessing intellectual functioning is a cornerstone of clinical psychology, particularly in diagnosing and understanding intellectual disability (ID) and related developmental disorders. Intellectual disability involves significant limitations in both intellectual
Introduction In psychological and educational research, not all variables are continuous. Many important variables — such as gender, pass/fail outcomes, yes/no responses, or item correctness — are dichotomous (i.e., having
Introduction In psychological and educational measurement, one of the major challenges is interpreting individual performance in a way that is meaningful, accurate, and comparable across different tests, populations, and contexts.