What is Suicide? Definitions, 4 Types, Theories, Risk Factors & Prevention Strategies

Disclaimer : This article is for educational purpose. It discusses topics related to suicide and self-harm, which may be distressing to some readers. If you or someone you know is struggling, please seek support from a mental health professional or crisis helpline. Help is always around the corner.

Introduction

Suicide and parasuicide represent significant global health issues, affecting millions of individuals annually. Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one’s death, while parasuicide refers to non-fatal self-harm behaviors with varying levels of intent. These phenomena not only have profound personal consequences but also create a ripple effect, impacting families, communities, and healthcare systems worldwide.

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2021) estimates that for every suicide, there are 20-30 suicide attempts, underscoring the prevalence and urgency of this issue.

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Suicide vs Parasuicide

Definition of Suicide

Suicide is defined by the American Psychiatric Association (2022) as the deliberate and voluntary act of ending one’s own life. It is often driven by a complex interplay of psychological distress, biological vulnerabilities, and sociocultural factors. It is not merely a personal decision but often reflects broader systemic and societal issues, including inequality, stigma, and lack of mental health resources.




Parasuicide

Parasuicide, often used interchangeably with non-fatal suicide attempts. Parasuicide refers to intentional self-harm that does not result in death. This behavior may include actions such as drug overdoses, cutting, or other forms of self-injury. While some parasuicidal acts are carried out with the intent to die, others may be expressions of distress or a cry for help (Hawton et al., 2020). Understanding parasuicide is critical, as individuals who engage in these behaviors are at significantly higher risk for future of it.

Types of Suicidal Behaviors

Suicidal behaviors can be classified into several categories to facilitate better understanding and tailored interventions.

  1. Suicidal Ideation- Suicidal ideation refers to thoughts or plans about ending one’s life. These thoughts may range from passive (e.g., wishing to die) to active (e.g., formulating a specific plan for suicide). Persistent suicidal ideation is a strong predictor of suicide attempts.
  2. Suicidal Gestures- Suicidal gestures involve non-lethal self-injury meant to signal distress or elicit attention. These acts often lack a genuine intent to die but should not be dismissed, as they indicate significant psychological distress.
  3. Parasuicide (Suicide Attempt)- Parasuicide includes self-harm behaviors carried out with some level of suicidal intent. Even when these acts do not result in death, they indicate a high risk of future suicide and necessitate immediate intervention.
  4. Completed Suicide- Completed suicide refers to fatal acts of self-harm. It is often the culmination of unaddressed psychological, social, or biological factors.




Sociological Explanations 

Sociological perspectives on it provide insight into how societal structures, relationships, and cultural norms influence suicidal behavior. These frameworks highlight the role of external factors rather than individual pathology.

1. Durkheim’s Sociological Theory 

Émile Durkheim’s seminal work on it in 1897 introduced a sociological approach to understanding this phenomenon. He identified four types of suicide based on the individual’s relationship with society-

  1. Egoistic Suicide- This occurs when individuals experience low levels of social integration. People who are socially isolated or lack meaningful connections may feel disconnected and purposeless, leading to suicidal thoughts and behaviors.
  2. Altruistic Suicide- Altruistic suicide arises in highly integrated societies where individuals may sacrifice themselves for the perceived greater good. Examples include soldiers in battle or members of tightly knit communities engaging in ritualistic suicide.
  3. Anomic Suicide- Anomic suicide is linked to societal upheaval or rapid changes, such as economic recessions or loss of status. These events create a sense of normlessness and instability, leading to feelings of despair.
  4. Fatalistic Suicide- Fatalistic suicide occurs in overly regulated environments where individuals feel trapped by oppressive rules or circumstances, such as in prisons or abusive relationships.

Durkheim’s theory remains relevant, providing a foundation for understanding how societal factors contribute to suicidal behavior.

2. Social Network and Contagion Effects

Modern sociological research highlights the influence of social networks and media on it. Suicide contagion, also known as the Werther effect, refers to an increase in suicidal behaviors following exposure to it within one’s social network or through media coverage (Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2020). Adolescents and young adults are particularly susceptible to these influences, emphasizing the need for responsible media reporting and supportive social environments.

Read More- Mental Health

 

Psychological Explanations 

Psychological theories delve into the mental and emotional processes underlying suicidal behavior, focusing on individual vulnerabilities and cognitive patterns.

1. Interpersonal Theory of Suicide

Joiner’s (2005) Interpersonal Theory of Suicide is a widely recognized framework explaining suicidal behavior through three interconnected factors-

  • Thwarted Belongingness- A profound sense of loneliness and lack of meaningful relationships can lead to feelings of disconnection, increasing its risk.
  • Perceived Burdensomeness- Individuals who believe they are a burden to their loved ones or society may feel that their death would alleviate others’ suffering.
  • Acquired Capability for Suicide- Repeated exposure to pain, trauma, or self-harm diminishes fear of death, making individuals more capable of carrying out suicidal acts.




2. Cognitive Behavioral Theories

Cognitive behavioral theories focus on distorted thinking patterns that contribute to its risk. Key concepts include-

  • Hopelessness- Persistent negative beliefs about the future are strong predictors of suicidal behavior (Beck et al., 1990).
  • Problem-Solving Deficits- Suicidal individuals often struggle with generating solutions to life challenges, leading to feelings of helplessness (Williams et al., 2005).
  • Rumination- Excessive focus on negative thoughts or past failures can increase psychological distress and suicidal ideation (Smith et al., 2018).

Potentiality and Presentation

There are several ways that it might present itself, some of the warning signs include-

Risk Factors for Suicide

Identifying risk factors is crucial for assessing its potentiality. Key risk factors include-

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Risk Factors for Suicide

  • Mental Health Disorders- Depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders are strongly associated with it (Turecki & Brent, 2016).
  • Substance Abuse- Alcohol and drug misuse significantly increase its risk by impairing judgment and intensifying emotional distress.
  • Trauma and Abuse- Experiences of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse contribute to long-term psychological vulnerabilities.
  • Access to Lethal Means- Easy access to firearms, poisons, or other means increases the likelihood of it.
  • Social and Economic Stressors- Financial difficulties, unemployment, and relationship conflicts are common triggers.




Warning Signs of Suicide

Warning signs of imminent suicide include-

  1. Verbal cues (e.g., expressing hopelessness or a desire to die),
  2. Behavioral changes (e.g., withdrawal from social activities, giving away possessions), and
  3. Sudden mood improvements following a depressive episode, which may signal decision-making about it.

Suicide Risk Assessment Tools

Healthcare professionals use standardized tools to assess its risk, including:

  • Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS)- Measures suicidal ideation and behavior to identify at-risk individuals (Posner et al., 2011).
  • Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS)- Assesses negative expectations about the future, which are strongly linked to suicide risk (Beck et al., 1990).
  • Suicide Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R)- Evaluates suicidal thoughts and history of self-harm to determine risk levels (Osman et al., 2001).

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Biological Change During Suicidal Behaviour (Turecki et al, 2019)

 

Interventions and Suicide Prevention Strategies

Suicidal prevention requires a multidisciplinary approach, integrating psychological, social, and public health measures.

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Suicide Prevention

1. Psychological Interventions

  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)- Focuses on identifying and challenging negative thought patterns, improving problem-solving skills, and enhancing emotional regulation.
  • Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)- Particularly effective for individuals with borderline personality disorder, DBT teaches coping skills to manage emotional distress and reduce self-harm behaviors.

2. Social Support and Community Engagement

Strengthening social connections and fostering supportive environments can mitigate risk factors for it. Community-based programs, peer support groups, and crisis hotlines provide essential resources for at-risk individuals.

3. Public Health Strategies

Public health initiatives focus on reducing access to lethal means, promoting mental health education, and encouraging help-seeking behaviors. For example, firearm safety measures and restricting access to pesticides have significantly reduced its rates in some regions (WHO, 2021).




Conclusion

Suicide and parasuicide are complex phenomena influenced by a combination of psychological, sociological, and biological factors. Understanding the nature of suicidal behaviors, their sociological and psychological explanations, and methods for assessing its risk is essential for effective prevention and intervention. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that integrates mental health care, social support, and public health policies. By prioritizing early identification and intervention, society can reduce the devastating impact of it and improve the quality of life for at-risk individuals.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Kovacs, M., & Garrison, B. (1990). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(5), 190-195. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.5.190

Durkheim, É. (1951). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1897)

Hawton, K., Saunders, K. E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2020). Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. The Lancet, 379(9834), 2373-2382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60919-5

Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.

Niederkrotenthaler, T., Braun, M., Pirkis, J., & Stack, S. (2020). Association between suicide reporting in the media and suicide: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 368, m575. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m575

World Health Organization. (2021). Suicide worldwide in 2021: Global health estimates. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240027785




Reference:

Dr. Balaji Niwlikar. (2025, January 14). What is Suicide? Definitions, 4 Types, Theories, Risk Factors & Prevention Strategies. Careershodh. https://www.careershodh.com/suicide/

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