2 Great Theories of Cognitive Approach to Learning

Introduction

Learning is a foundational concept in cognitive psychology, referring to the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or teaching. Within cognitive psychology, two distinct but interconnected theories—latent learning and observational learning—highlight the intricate processes by which individuals acquire knowledge, often without immediate reinforcement or active engagement.

Cognitive Approach to Learning

• Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding internal mental processes, such as memory, problem-solving, and perception, as they relate to learning.
• Unlike behaviorist models, which emphasize external stimuli and responses, cognitive theories underscore the active role of the mind in acquiring, processing, and retaining information.

The concept of latent learning and observational learning bridges the gap between behavioral and cognitive approaches by revealing the complex interplay between external environments and internal mental states.

Read More- Learning

Latent Learning

Latent learning refers to knowledge acquired without obvious reinforcement and only demonstrated when there is motivation to exhibit it. Edward C. Tolman, a prominent cognitive psychologist, introduced this concept in the 1930s through his groundbreaking experiments with rats in mazes. Tolman’s work challenged the dominant behaviorist paradigm, which posited that learning occurred solely through reinforcement.

Tolman’s Experiment on Latent Learning

Tolman and Honzik (1930) placed three groups of rats in a complex maze-

Tolman’s Maze

1. Group 1 (Rewarded Group)- These rats received food rewards every time they successfully navigated the maze.
2. Group 2 (Non-Rewarded Group)- These rats never received food rewards, meaning they had no external incentive to learn the maze.
3. Group 3 (Delayed-Reward Group)- These rats did not receive rewards for the first 10 days, but on the 11th day, they started receiving rewards for completing the maze.

Findings-

• Initially, the delayed-reward group performed similarly to the non-rewarded group, showing no clear evidence of learning.
• However, once rewards were introduced on the 11th day, their performance rapidly improved, even surpassing the consistently rewarded group.
• This suggested that the rats had learned the maze layout during the exploration phase but did not demonstrate this knowledge until there was an incentive to do so.

Average Error of Started Decreasing After Reinforcement

Tolman concluded that rats (and by extension, humans) develop cognitive maps—internal representations of the environment—that allow them to navigate effectively when necessary. This was a groundbreaking departure from strict behaviorist perspectives, which argued that learning only occurs when reinforced.

Mechanisms of Latent Learning

Latent learning occurs in three stages:

1. Acquisition- Individuals gather information about their environment without explicit motivation or reinforcement.
2. Retention- The acquired knowledge is stored in memory.
3. Utilization- The knowledge is applied when external circumstances or incentives demand it.

These stages illustrate the critical role of internal cognitive processes, such as memory and motivation, in learning.

Cognitive Map

A cognitive map is a mental representation of spatial environments, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their surroundings. The concept was introduced by Tolman in the 1940s through his research on rats in mazes. Cognitive maps help organisms store, recall, and use spatial information without needing constant external cues.

Sign Learning

Sign learning is a cognitive learning theory proposed by Tolman, which suggests that learning occurs through the formation of connections (signs) between stimuli and goals rather than simple stimulus-response associations. Tolman believed that organisms learn by creating mental representations of their environment and using these “signs” to navigate toward rewards.

“The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.” (Tolman, 1948, p192)

Read More- Observational Learning

Observational Learning

Observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, involves acquiring new behaviors by observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura, a key figure in this field, demonstrated the principles of observational learning through his famous “Bobo doll” experiment in the 1960s. Bandura’s work established that individuals, especially children, can learn behaviors without direct reinforcement by simply observing a model.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Albert Bandura’s 1961 Bobo doll experiment provided strong evidence for observational learning, particularly in the development of aggressive behavior in children.

Agression Shown by the Children

Bandura divided children into three groups-

1. Aggressive Model Group- Children watched an adult model aggressively hitting, kicking, and yelling at an inflatable Bobo doll.
2. Non-Aggressive Model Group- Children observed an adult playing calmly with the Bobo doll.
3. Control Group- Children had no exposure to a model.

Set Up of the Study (Bandura et al., 1961)

After watching the model, the children were placed in a room with a Bobo doll and other toys.

Findings-

• Children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors, even using similar language and gestures.
• Children who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited fewer aggressive behaviors.
• The control group showed a mix of behaviors but was less aggressive than the aggressive-model group.

Stages in Observational Learning

Bandura outlined four key processes that determine whether an observed behavior is learned and later performed-

1. Attention- For observational learning to occur, the individual must pay attention to the model’s behavior. Several factors influence attention like characteristics of the model, characteristics of the observer, and the complexity of the behavior.
2. Retention- After paying attention, the observer must remember the behavior for future replication. Retention depends on cognitive processes, mental rehearsal, and encoding strategies. For example, a student watching a teacher solve a math problem must retain the steps mentally to apply them later.
3. Reproduction- Once the behavior is remembered, the observer must have the physical and cognitive ability to perform it. Several factors affect reproduction like motor skills, cognitive abilities, and practice and feedback. For example, a student learning how to write an essay must apply writing skills, grammar rules, and structuring techniques to replicate what they have observed.
4. Motivation- Even if an individual pays attention, remembers, and can reproduce a behavior, they might not perform it unless they are motivated. Motivation is influenced by rewards and punishments, vicarious reinforcement, and personal interest. For example, a student might learn a mathematical technique but only use it if they believe it will help them pass an exam.

Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism is a concept introduced by Bandura that explains how individual behavior, personal factors (cognition, emotions), and the environment influence each other in a continuous cycle. Instead of viewing behavior as solely shaped by external factors (as behaviorists believed), Bandura argued that humans actively interact with their surroundings, shaping and being shaped by them.

Difference Between Latent Learning and Observational Learning

Differences Between Latent Learning and Observational Learning

Criticism to the Cognitive Approach to Learning

The major criticism to the cognitive approach to learning includes-

• Overemphasis on Internal Mental Processes- Cognitive theories rely on unobservable mental processes, making them less scientific than behaviorist approaches (Eysenck & Keane, 2015). Concepts like schemas and cognitive maps are inferred rather than directly measured (Anderson, 2010).
• Underestimation of Environmental and Social Influences- Cognitive theories focus on individual learning, often ignoring cultural and social factors. Learning is heavily influenced by social interactions and external reinforcement, which cognitive theories may overlook (Rogoff, 2003).
• Lack of Consideration for Emotions and Motivation- Cognitive models focus on reasoning and problem-solving but ignore emotional and motivational factors that drive learning (Ormrod, 2016). Affective states like stress and anxiety significantly impact learning but are underexplored in cognitive theories.
• Limited Explanation for Skill-Based and Implicit Learning- Cognitive theories work well for explicit learning (e.g., problem-solving, memory) but struggle to explain skill-based or unconscious learning (Reber, 1993). Many skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument, develop without conscious thought, contradicting cognitive assumptions.

Conclusion

Latent learning and observational learning demonstrate the complexity of cognitive processes in acquiring knowledge and behavior. Latent learning, as proposed by Tolman, highlights how individuals can learn without immediate reinforcement, storing knowledge for future use. This challenges traditional behaviorist perspectives, emphasizing internal cognitive structures such as cognitive maps. On the other hand, observational learning, as demonstrated by Bandura, underscores the role of social interactions, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement in shaping behavior.

References

Anderson, J. R. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. Worth Publishers.

Bandura, A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575-582.

Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive Psychology: A Student’s Handbook. Psychology Press.

Ormrod, J. E. (2016). Human Learning. Pearson.

Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge: An Essay on the Cognitive Unconscious. Oxford University Press.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The Cultural Nature of Human Development. Oxford University Press.

Tolman, E. C. (1930). Purposive behavior in animals and men. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.