Introduction

Personality refers to the stable patterns of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and interpersonal functioning that define an individual’s character and response to the world. Personality develops gradually through biological, psychological, and social influences. When these patterns become rigid, maladaptive, and lead to significant distress or functional impairment, they are classified as Personality Disorders (PDs).

DSM-5 introduces the concept of General Personality Disorder (also called the General Criteria for Personality Disorder) to establish a foundational definition. Any specific personality disorder diagnosis (e.g., Borderline, Antisocial, Avoidant) must first satisfy these general criteria.

Thus, “General Personality Disorder” provides the core framework describing what fundamentally constitutes a personality disorder before subtypes are applied.

Definition of General Personality Disorder

According to DSM-5 (APA, 2013), a General Personality Disorder is defined as:

“An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.”

Personality Disorder

Key components in the definition:

1. 1. Enduring pattern: Long-term, persistent traits (not temporary stress-related states).
   2. Deviation from cultural expectations: Behavior patterns are significantly different from cultural or social norms.
   3. Pervasive and inflexible: Occur across many situations and contexts. Not easily modified by external demands.
   4. Begins early (adolescence/early adulthood): Not acquired suddenly in adulthood unless due to trauma, brain injury, or medical conditions.
   5. Stable over time: Patterns remain consistent for years or decades.
   6. Causes distress or functional impairment: Difficulty in interpersonal relationships, career, emotional regulation, or social functioning.
   7. Not explained by another mental disorder, substance, or medical condition: Ensures diagnostic clarity.

Core Characteristics of General Personality Disorder

Below are the detailed characteristics, divided into domains based on DSM-5 and literature from Butcher, Carson, and Nevid.

1. Deviant Patterns in Cognition

Cognitive aspects refer to how an individual perceives themselves, others, and the world.

Common cognitive abnormalities include:

• • Distorted self-image (e.g., inflated self-worth in narcissistic traits).
  • Suspiciousness or paranoid thinking.
  • Rigid and extreme beliefs (“People cannot be trusted,” “I must be perfect”).
  • Misinterpretation of social cues.
  • Overgeneralization and dichotomous thinking (“all or nothing”).
  • Inaccurate attribution of blame (externalizing: “It’s always someone else’s fault”).

Cognitive rigidity is a hallmark—individuals rarely accommodate new information.

2. Affective Dysregulation

Involves chronic difficulties in emotional experience and expression.

Common features:

• • Intense and rapidly shifting emotions.
  • Difficulty controlling anger or impulses.
  • Chronic feelings of emptiness or instability.
  • Low frustration tolerance.
  • Inappropriate emotional reactions (e.g., laughing during serious situations).

Some may appear emotionally cold, others excessively expressive or labile.

3. Interpersonal Dysfunction

PDs cause significant problems in social interactions.

Typical relational difficulties:

• • Conflictual relationships.
  • Fear of abandonment or excessive dependency.
  • Lack of empathy or inability to understand others’ perspectives.
  • Manipulation or exploitation of others.
  • Inability to maintain long-term friendships, work relationships, or romantic bonds.
  • Poor boundaries (either too rigid or too porous).

Often others notice the dysfunction more clearly than the individual.

Impulse Control and Behavioral Dysregulation

These involve difficulties in controlling urges and behaviors.

Examples:

• Risk-taking (driving fast, unsafe sex, financial impulsivity).

• Aggressive or violent outbursts.

• Substance misuse as coping.

• Self-harm or suicidal gestures (common in borderline traits).

• Compulsive behavior patterns.

Dysregulation is often chronic, not episodic.

Additional Characteristics

Some additional characteristics include:

1. Pervasiveness Across Situations

Unlike mood disorders (which fluctuate), PD symptoms appear:

• • at home
  • at work
  • in friendships
  • in romantic relationships
  • in social environments

This cross-situational consistency is essential for diagnosis.

2. Inflexibility

Individuals tend to:

• • stick to the same coping strategies
  • react similarly in many situations
  • resist feedback
  • avoid adapting behavior, even when consequences are harmful

Such rigidity makes daily life challenging.

3. Ego-Syntonic Nature

Most PD symptoms feel natural or acceptable to the individual.

Unlike anxiety or depression (ego-dystonic), personality traits feel:

• • “This is who I am.”
  • “Others are the problem, not me.”

This reduces motivation to seek treatment.

Long-Term Stability

PD traits:

• • appear gradually
  • remain stable for decades
  • resist change
  • typically begin in adolescence

Unlike mood disorders, PDs do not have clear episodic phases.

Cultural Context

DSM emphasizes cultural expectations because behaviors must be evaluated relative to:

• • norms
  • religion
  • societal values
  • familial rules

What is pathological in one culture may be normal in another.

Differential Diagnosis

Before diagnosing a General Personality Disorder, clinicians must rule out:

Treating Personality Disorder

1. 1. Mood disorders (e.g., Bipolar, Major Depression)
   2. Psychotic disorders
   3. Effects of substances (alcohol, drugs)
   4. Neurocognitive disorders (e.g., dementia)
   5. Medical conditions (e.g., frontal lobe injury)

Accurate diagnosis requires careful history taking.

Functional Impairments

Personality disorders can lead to:

• • Occupational problems
    1. frequent job changes
    2. conflicts with coworkers
    3. poor work ethic
  • Legal issues (especially in antisocial traits)
  • Health problems (stress-related)
  • Relationship breakdowns
  • Social isolation
  • Academic underachievement

The impairment must be significant for DSM diagnosis.

Etiology

Although detailed etiology belongs to specific PDs, general risk factors include:

1. Biological

• • Genetic predisposition
  • Temperament traits (e.g., high neuroticism)
  • Brain structure differences (prefrontal cortex)
  • Neurotransmitter imbalances (serotonin, dopamine)

2. Psychological

• • Insecure attachment
  • Poor emotional regulation
  • Maladaptive coping
  • Trauma exposure

3. Social

• • Childhood abuse/neglect
  • Inconsistent parenting
  • Conflict-ridden family environments
  • Cultural stressors

DSM-5 highlights that PDs arise from a complex interplay of multiple factors.

Conclusion

General Personality Disorder, as defined in DSM-5, provides the essential diagnostic foundation for all personality disorders. It establishes the criteria for a pervasive, rigid, and enduring pattern of maladaptive thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and interpersonal functioning that begins early in life and impacts multiple areas of functioning.

Understanding these general characteristics is critical before diagnosing any specific personality disorder, as they capture the core pathology underlying the broader category of personality dysfunction.